Hungarians Killed at the Hands of the Soviet Union Essays

In 1956, thousands of Hungarians, aggrieved by the lack of freedom in their nation, crowded into the streets in revolt to protest against the injustice done towards them. Nikita Khrushchev responds quickly and violently to this unruly show of disloyalty. He sends in his troops and tanks to put a swift, crushing end to the spontaneous uprising. This led to the death of more than 2,500 Hungarians at the hands of Khrushchev. The West made no attempts of intervention, due to their desire to not spark conflict with the Soviet Union, and risk war in the process. This event does not reflect the containment policy due to the West’s passivity in the matter; on the grounds that it did not represent the spread of communism, as Hungary was already a†¦show more content†¦In one case, when the Polish Communist Party elected a new official, they were faced with threats of the Soviet forces invading Poland. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union was at odds with the West, how did they respond? The West was following their policy of containment: to prevent communism from spreading any further than it already had. Their response to the matter does not reflect the policy of containment. They didn’t do anything to intervene or support Hungary. Although their citizens were disturbed by the brutal force shown by Khrushchev, and protested, they ultimately remained passive in the matter. Their leaders stated that their policy was containment. They rationalized that Hungary had already been in communist hands before Khrushchev sent his forces in. Consequently, they had no business intervening. In addition, if they did interfere, they would be risking war with the Soviet Union. Therefore they decided they would ultimately remain inactive. In conclusion, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 resulted in the death of more than 2,500 Hungarians. Many of the attitudes and occurrences at the time, such as Khrushchev’s brutality and the general unrest under the Soviet Union’s control of countries and their freedom were large factors in the revolt. The West makes no attempts of intervention; Hungary was already under the power ofShow MoreRelatedLife in the Soviet Regime During the Cold War1837 Words   |  7 PagesThe Bonds of the Soviet People Elena Gorokhova explains in her memoir that â€Å"The rules are simple: they lie to us, we know theyre lying, they know we know theyre lying, but they keep lying to us, and we keep pretending to believe them.† The novel, A Mountain of Crumbs, depicts the hopelessness, opression and deception of life behind the Iron Curtain during the 70s and 80s. Many rights of the people within the Soviet Union were violated and unacknowledged. 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Two superpowers with the race of weapon notRead MoreAnalysis of Adam Hochschilds The Unquiet Ghost2126 Words   |  9 PagesThe Unquiet Ghost During the Communist regime in the former Soviet Union, life was very difficult. The people who lived within the countries controlled by the Soviet government experienced levels of oppression akin to slavery. They could not express themselves through any means and had to conform both body and soul to the views of the Communist Party. People could be arrested, imprisoned, shipped off to exile or executed often without trial. Some twenty million people died while Joseph Stalin led

Cyber Warfare Is Not Fully Understood - 2407 Words

Cyber-warfare is a relatively new concept to the imagination, but its novelty should not belie its importance to be understood at all echelons of a command structure. It is an emerging reality, and its relevance is proportionate to the continuous global expansion and convergence of digital networks. The capabilities of cyber-warfighting strategies and tactics are extensive, and a need for a common language and understanding is necessary for cyber-warfighting capabilities. Within any culture, language is developed through a symbolic evolution, and military science has largely built its own unique vocabulary and terminology to describe conventional and unconventional warfare. Whether this language can be applied to cyber-warfare is not fully†¦show more content†¦The essence of Glad’s essay is that descriptions of war are largely reflective of the culture and political environment of their time. This applies just as easily to our modern era, when cyber-warfare presents a n unknown frontier through which it must be described in intelligible terms. Beyond the cultural context through which we understand warfare is the biological context. The vocabulary of kinetic warfare derives from our five senses, similar to how classical physics started with an exploration of objects and phenomena that were readily available to our senses. Our senses initially limited how science was conducted. The smallest object that an unaided eye can see is about 0.1 mm in diameter (). The farthest a 6 feet tall standing human can see is about 3 miles because of the curvature of the earth. Unlike other organisms, such as sharks, humans cannot sense electrical stimuli and locate objects based off of changes in electric currents (). For the majority of humans, vision is the primary sense for navigating the world. Other organisms, such as ants, rely on smell as their primary sense for navigation (). Vision makes the world appear as having sharp boundaries, whereas navigating the world via

The Postive and Negative Influences of Technology in the...

Over the past few years, education has grown rapidly with the implementation of new technologies, but this growth has been witnessed in both positive and negative ways. When one uses the term ‘technology’, a good number of people automatically think of computers. However, the use of technology in the education sector depends on how new inventions are incorporated into institutions of higher learning. Students are no longer required to use their brains; instead they are taught how to memorize things using alternate sources such as: computers and calculators (Duderstadt et.al 09). Technology holds a much deeper significance for higher education since it influences propagation and application of knowledge, the key ingredient of higher†¦show more content†¦Nonetheless, todays programmable calculators and computers can store plenty of equations and even notes, and are allowed during examinations. With improved information access, the ability of a student to processing information and make decisions will be greatly influenced (Surry 202). 2. Promotes seamless distance learning The presence of software environments and sophisticated networks has learning available for anyone, at any place and time. For instance, multimedia technology has augmented the attractiveness of computer-mediated distance learning that’s often perceived to be more suitable for learners who work or have obligations that prevent them from attending conventional classes in their respective campuses. Access to libraries has also been enhanced through the use of broadband digital networks. According to a recent research, distance learning based on computer-network-mediated prototypes allows universities to push their boundaries further outward in order to serve learners anywhere, at any time. For this reason, technology has offered people who need to work a full time job with an option to still pursue a college education so as to better themselves and their careers. Perhaps, it’s imperative to point out the fact that the most important benefit of technology when it comes to distance learning is access. It makes it feasible. 3. Reshaping the nature of researchShow MoreRelatedThe Postive and Negative Social, Educational and Health Effects of Cell Phones on Teenagers3132 Words   |  13 PagesTHE POSTIVE AND NEGATIVE SOCIAL, EDUCATIONAL AND HEALTH EFFECTS OF CELL PHONES ON TEENAGERS By Agshin Alizada For the course HSB 4MI Presented to Miss Dahl BLUEVALE COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE Table of Contents Page 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Discussion ` 4 2.1 Positive and Negative Social Effects of Cell Phones on Teenagers 4 2.2 Positive and Negative Educational Effects

Monotheism Vs Polytheism Essay Example For Students

Monotheism Vs Polytheism Essay Different religions exist because not everyone has the same spiritual needs or responds best to the same style of worship. Monotheism, the worship of one deity (www.jeremiahproject.com), appeals to one type of person, whereas polytheism, the worship of many deities (www.jeremiahproject.com), appeals to another, much like how different music styles appeal to different people. The Revolutionary War was an enormous part of American history. The revolution in Russia, that sparked the overthrow of communism, was a huge part of Russian history. The revolution of Christianity, one of the monotheistic religions, from the concepts of Greek gods, one of the polytheistic religions, was also a large part of religious history. There are only three modern religions that are monotheistic: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (Donceel 52). For comparison purposes, this paper will use the concepts and ideas brought forth by the Bible and Christianity. The book of Genisis begins by assuming that there is only one true God that created the Heavens and Earth and rules over it, and that assumption is maintained throughout the Old Testament as well as the New Testament. Christians believe that God gave His only son, Jesus. â€Å"For God so loved the world, that gave is only begotten son, that whosoever believeth in Him should not perish, but have everlasting life.† When Jesus was put to death by humans, He told the people, He would die to forgive their sins. This shows that God and His son were both caring and forgiving beings. They are respected by the followers of Christianity. God helps humans. Humans pray to God for help and forgiveness. People also go to church, the place of worship, to learn more about the Christian religion, to pay their respects to God, and to maintain a personal relationship with Jesus (Deut. 4:35, 39; 5:7; 32:39; Exod. 20:3; Josh 24:15; 1 Kgs. 18:21; Hos. 4:12; Isa. 2:8, 20; 17:8; 31:7; 45:21; Jer. 10:5, 10; Acts 17:22-31; 1 Cor. 8:4). An ancient religion that is polytheistic is Greek Mythology. Greek Mythology consists of beliefs and ritual observances of the ancient Greeks, who became the first Western civilization about 2000 BC. It consists mainly of a body of diverse stories and legends about a variety of gods. Greek mythology had become fully developed by about the 700s BC. Three classic collections of myths—Theogony by the poet Hesiod and the Iliad and the Odyssey by the poet Homer, which all appeared at about that time. Greek mythology has several distinguishing characteristics. The Greek gods resembled humans in form and showed human feelings. Unlike ancient religions such as Hinduism or Judaism, Greek mythology did not involve special revelations or spiritual teachings. It also varied widely in practice and belief, with no formal structure, such as a church government, and no written code, such as a sacred book. The Greeks believed that the gods chose Mount Olympus, in a region of Greece called Thessaly (Thessalia), as their home. On Olympus, the gods formed a society that ranked them in terms of authority and powers. However, the gods could roam freely, and individual gods became associated with three main domains—the sky or heaven, the sea, and earth. The 12 chief gods, usually called the Olympians, were Zeus, Hera, Hephaestus, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Aphrodite, Hestia, Hermes, Demeter, and Poseidon. Zeus was the head of the gods, and the spiritual father of gods and people. His wife, Hera, was the queen of heaven and the guardian of marriage. Other gods associated with heaven were Hephaestus, god of fire and metalworkers; Athena, goddess of wisdom and war; and Apollo, god of light, poetry, and music. Artemis, goddess of wildlife and the moon; Ares, god of war; and Aphrodite, goddess of love, were other gods of heaven. They were joined by Hestia, goddess of the hearth; and Hermes, messenger of the gods and ruler of science and invention. .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 , .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 .postImageUrl , .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 , .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1:hover , .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1:visited , .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1:active { border:0!important; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1:active , .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1 .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u0d6271e1712782dd840b4971435ec7c1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Philosophy4 EssayGreek mythology emphasized the weakness of humans in contrast to the great and terrifying powers of nature. The Greeks believed that their gods, who were immortal, controlled all aspects of nature. So the Greeks acknowledged that their lives were completely dependent on the good will of the gods. In general, the relations between people and gods were considered friendly. But the gods delivered severe punishment to mortals who showed unacceptable behavior, such as indulgent pride, extreme ambition, or even excessive prosperity. The mythology was interwoven with every aspect of Greek life. Each city devoted itself to a particular god or group of gods, for whom the citizens often built temples of worship. They regularly honored the gods in festivals, which high officials supervised. At festivals and other official gatherings, poets recited or sang great legends and stories. Many Greeks learned about the gods through the words of poets. Greeks also learned about the gods by word of mouth at home, where worship was common. Different parts of the home were dedicated to certain gods, and people offered prayers to those gods at regular times. An altar of Zeus, for example, might be placed in the courtyard, while Hestia was ritually honored at the hearth. Although the Greeks had no official church organization, they universally honored certain holy places. Delphi, for example, was a holy site dedicated to Apollo. A temple built at Delphi contained an oracle, or prophet, whom brave travelers questioned about the future. A group of priests represented each of the holy sites. These priests, who also might be community officials, interpreted the words of the gods but did not possess any special knowledge or power. In addition to prayers, the Greeks often offered sacrifices to the gods, usually of a domestic animal such as a goat (Hamilton chapters 1 and 2). In conclusion, Christianity is monotheistic, with belief in only one true God. Greek Mythology is polytheistic with belief in several deities. Both are respectful religions that serve the need of their followers. Bibliography:BibliographyDonceel, Joseph F. The Searching Mind. Notre Dame, 1980. www.jeremiahproject.com/view_monotheismandpolytheism.html. Hamilton, Edith. Mythology. 1942.

Ncaa free essay sample

Greer In persuasive speaking there are two styles which are, speech of actuation speech of disposition. I will be informing you the differences between the two speeches. Len the actuation speech Its designed to cause the audience to do or show something also action. Actuation speech Is really particularly useful If only the audience already shares all of your view. An example could be, at the end of presidential campaigns, the candidates begin to focus on convincing their supporters to actually vote.They are seeking to actuate the action of voting through their speeches. Actuate Is a term meaning move to action, such as argument that your grade should be changed. Also you could argue against a outlook Increase. You must be competent In all forms of your speaking such as Informing and convincing. In disposition speeches, its a speech designed to influence listeners disposition toward your topic such as: beliefs, attitudes values. We will write a custom essay sample on Ncaa or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The dispositional factors start of with belief, which is something we accept as true or falls even though it has not yet been or cannot be shown true.Second you have attitude which is our tendency to respond favorably or unfavorable to something we like or dislike. Third is values which is a deeply held concept about what is and isnt good, right, and important with regard to conduct and existence. In the actuation speech ; disposition speech, they two has an comparison of action. When using both of the styles of persuasive speeches, your goal is to change your listeners thoughts, attitudes, beliefs(disposition) or behavior(actuation). You must first conduct an audience easement and submit this additional research with your speech.

Patagonia Essays - Patagonia, Yvon Chouinard, Climbing Equipment

Patagonia Essays - Patagonia, Yvon Chouinard, Climbing Equipment Patagonia Abstract Patagonias mission statement is, To use business to inspire and implement solutions to environmental crisis. Patagonia is a clothing company thats focus is on selling environmentally safe outdoor apparel. This papers focus is on the history of Patagonia their environmental marketing strategies and their competition. There has also been some outside research done to see what the publics perception of Patagonia is. Introduction Patagonia's History In 1957 a young climber named Yvon Chouinard could not find pitons (a form of climbing protection) that he liked. So he began to make his own climbing gear. Chouinard was a self-educated blacksmith. He took his knowledge and began to build his own pitons. Of the pitons he made, Chouinard would keep what he needed and started selling the rest to his friends. Shortly after, Chouinard began building carabiners in addition to his production of the pitons. Up until this point, he had been working out of his parents' back yard and selling equipment out of his car. He moved his business in 1959 to an industrial yard in Burbank California and again in 1966 to a tin shed behind an abandoned slaughterhouse in Ventura California. In 1966, Tom Frost was recruited to help make the transition from handmade to machine made products. Chouinard and Frost founded Chouinard Equipment, Ltd. Everything about the operations focused on building the best quality climbing gear in the worldThe companies genui ne and relentless pursuit of quality was matched by its reputation for it (Defining Quality, 2). Chouinard and Frost remained partners until 1975. During this time the two managed to redesign, hence improve, almost every tool used on a climber's rack. Their production also tried to minimize the use of materials. By 1970 Chouinard Equipment was the largest supplier of climbing equipment in the United States. Although this seemed positive from a business standpoint, Chouinard and Frost realized that they were contributing to environmental deterioration. Pitons require repetitive hammering for placement and removal. Because rock climbing was becoming popular the amount of destruction increased. Chouinard and Frost took a stand and decided to discontinue their production of pitons. This decision initiated a blind devotion that ultimately led to Patagonia's Statement of Purpose: To use business to inspire and implement solutions to environmental crisis. An environmental safe alternative to pitons was found in aluminum chocks. As before Chouinard Equipment designed and produced their own version of the chocks. Sales were slow until their showing in the first Chouinard Equipment catalog in 1972. The first pages of the catalog featured A Word from the owners on the environmental hazards of pitons. The ethical stand taken by Chouinard Equipment dramatically effected the climbing community. Things began to change for the better. Within just a few months of the release of their first catalog, piton sales were severely stunted. In 1973 Patagonia the company was incorporated. Around this same time, Chouinard became interested in the profit potential of soft goods. He pursued his interest by introducing rugby shirts into their line. Frost and others opposed this decision and left the partnership in 1975. In the mid-seventies clothing was introduced under the name 'Patagonia'. Shortly after, in 1979, Patagonia Clothing Corporation was established. Patagonia was incorporated in 1984. Patagonia followed Chouinard's original intentions of developing goods that could easily be described as ridiculously overbuilt (Defining Quality, 5). Chouinard began technical product development in 1973, which continued and intensified under the Patagonia name. Patagonia continually improved on the amount of environmental impact as well as the quality of their materials. Pile lead to Bunting, which lead to Synchilla, which eventually changed the industry. Patagonia also introduced polypropylene underwear, which was replaced by Capilene in 1985. Although competition became fierce, Patagonia's attention to the details and construction of their products kept them ahead of the others. Throughout the years there has always been one constant in Patagonia's design and philosophy- a sense that there is in the products, or should be, more than meets the eye. Quality. Superb functionality. Environmental concern. A Killer warranty and service to match (Defining Quality, 9). Patagonia's Environmental History As you can see in the above text, Patagonias founder Yvon Chouinard has always put the environment first in his business plans. But Patagonia has done more for

Why does group polarisation occur Essays

Why does group polarisation occur Essays Why does group polarisation occur Essay Why does group polarisation occur Essay Essay Topic: Sociology Group polarisation refers to the tendency for groups to make more extreme decisions or judgements after discussion when compared to the initial views of group members. This phenomenon has interested psychologists since 1961, when Stoner discovered the risky shift, and is central to understanding social influence in groups; therefore the major theories of social influence have been invoked to explain it, so far with little conclusive success. This essay will cover the origins of group polarisation and examples of it in everyday life, and will then proceed to discuss a number of theories proposed to explain it. It will then be attempted to ascertain which of these best explains group polarisation and why. Until the 1960s it was generally accepted that a groups attitudes were the mean or average of its comprising individuals attitudes. In 1961 Stoner asked some business students to make judgements on a choice dilemma questionnaire, this was done individually and then in groups. Group decisions were found to be, on average, more risky than average pre-discussion, individual decisions. This was known as the shift to risk, and was quickly replicated by Wallach et al. (1962). Wallach et al. evised twelve hypothetical choice dilemmas, and asked participants to rate the lowest level of risk that they found acceptable for somebody to take a risky course of action. They found that 92% of group decisions were riskier than the average individual decision; and importantly, that it resulted in permanent cognitive change, with 39% taking riskier actions after the group decisions (Wallach and Kogan, 1965). Early explanations for this shift were based around the idea that groups have a diffusion of responsibility; with no-one individually held responsible, they can afford to take risks. However, the shift to risk was soon found to be a shift to extremity, with several experiments finding that groups are not always risky. Stoner (1968) found reliable shifts to caution on issues of well being and safety; e. g. prisoner to attempt escape, if the prisoner escapes he lives, but if not he will die. It was concluded that groups polarise, they shift to extremities, the more extreme a group is to begin with, the more extreme it seems to become (Brown, 2000, p. 199). This was a very important discovery which challenged the classic conformity theory experiments which typically showed convergence on the group norms. Sherifs 1935 auto kinetic experiment showed groups converging on a range of judgements close to the mean or median of preliminary individual judgements. Aschs line experiments produced similar results (1952, 1955 1956). The risky shift experiments show simultaneous convergence and shift to a more extreme group norm be it negative or positive. Polarisation doesnt just occur in theoretical choice dilemmas, it is a general phenomenon that may be observed in everyday life. Kalven and Ziesel (1966) studied jury decisions in America and found that the initial majority were predictive of 90% of decisions. Blacovich et al. (1975) found that groups bet more than individuals in Blackjack; while McCauley et al. found groups to be more cautious than individuals when betting on horses. Moscovici and Zavalloni (1969) asked French students their attitudes towards President de Gaulle and the USA, the students then formed groups and gave group attitude responses. These group responses were more extreme than their individual responses with de Gaulle being seen more positively and the USA more negatively than previously. However, almost all the studies conducted into group polarisation have been within laboratories using ad-hoc groups and with no realistic outcome for the participants. Therefore it could be argued that these results cannot be generalised Of the experiments that have been conducted with real-experiment groups, the results have been less reliable (e. g. Semin and Glendon, 1973) though it is a phenomenon that is occurring regularly. The first theory that tried to account for group polarisation was by Wallach and Kogan (1965); based on diffusion of responsibility, they held that discussion reduced any anxiety felt about the negative consequences of making a choice, because the responsibility is shared. This didnt explain why shifts to caution or shifts on decisions which resulted in no consequences occurred. The group decision schemes theory (Davis, 1979), was one of the first influential theories in the field; Davis held that groups have implicit rules for combining individual positions on decisions; the most common rule being majority rule. This means the group decision will be more extreme or skewed whenever the majority is biased towards a particular extreme. There were many criticisms levelled at the theory which didnt adequately resolve why polarisation actually occurred. It was rejected, as skewness does not account for shifts in dyads where no majority can exist; it doesnt explain why there are shifts in the group median as well as the mean and the shift may also runs counter to the initial majority. Also it didnt justify why the group shift was internalised and even affected non-participating observers (Lamm, 1967). Lastly, as Graesser (1975) points out, the theory is not falsifiable because group decision schemes theory is based upon infinite maths calculations and therefore it is always possible to claim that the correct scheme has yet to be discovered. A number of other theories were proposed, including familiarisation theory (Bateson, 1965) and various leadership theories, none proved to be watertight and were dismissed. Only two theories have survived and both have tended to rework one of the two dual processes recognised by the social dependency paradigm: normative and informational influence. First we shall consider normative influence and social comparison theory; an extension of Festingers (1954) social comparison theory, Sanders and Baron (1977) have modified it to explain polarisation. Normative influence is being liked; fulfilling and conforming to the groups expectations so as to boost positive feeling about oneself. Sanders and Baron tried to prove that people often value more extreme values than they actually hold; however they are generally scared of being too extremist. However when in a group it is actually found that they hold only moderate views, and so shift them further in the group direction to be seen more positively. The key factor in this social comparison explanation is peoples knowledge of other group members positions relative to the dominant social values in question (Brown, 2000, p. 202). Therefore, as Teger and Pruitt (1967) found, there is no need for any discussion, as long as group members positions can be inferred, their will be no need for a verbal exchanging of views. As the values become more explicit so people polarise more extremely; Baron and Roper (1976) adapted Sherifs (1936) auto kinetic effect paradigm by effectively informing participants that light distance was correlated with high intelligence. This inevitably led to participants estimating higher distances depending upon the claim made by the participant beforehand. However Burnstein and Vinokur (1977) claim that by associating light movement with intelligence, they have provided the participants with a persuasive argument to estimate larger distances (Burnstein and Vinokur, 1977, p. 27). Burnstein and Vinokur have taken a totally opposing stance towards solving the polarisation phenomenon. They hold that it is a result of informational influence, of persuasive arguments which cause people to accept information as the truth. Vinokur and Burnsteins persuasive arguments theory (1974) holds that a culturally given pool of arguments exist for and against the decision in question, which participants can delve into and exchange during discussion. For a shift to occur it depends upon the persuasiveness of the new arguments generated in discussions. However, availability, direction and persuasiveness of these arguments vary, which may allow for experiments whereabouts the arguments do not result in group polarisation. A persuasive argument is defined as a statement judged to have a certain cogency (Burnstein and Vinokur, 1977, p. 326), but the arguments impact can only be effective within certain social contexts; for otherwise it wouldnt be possible to determine its impact. Sanders and Baron have conceded that a persuasive argument also has an effect on group polarisation, and that the two theories work in conjunction with one another. This was rejected on the grounds that it was too complicated and that persuasive arguments can explain polarisation and convergence. There is a huge wealth of evidence lending credence to the persuasive arguments theory; including polarisation when exposed to arguments without exposure to others positions and polarisation when just thinking about an issue. Burnstein and Vinokur found that (i) if an individual could argue but not compare, then polarisation occurred (1973), (ii) if he could compare but not argue, polarisation vanishes or is greatly reduced (1973, 1975). Burnstein et al. conceded that social comparison may play an indirect role in influencing polarisation as information about others may guide the person in generating arguments (Burnstein and Vinokur, 1977, p. 318). Myers and Lamm also disagree with the persuasive arguments theory, they concluded that (although) the evidence for (informational theories such as persuasive arguments) is compelling it also appears that group polarisation is not fully explained by a passive process of cognitive learning. More dynamic processes of cognitive rehearsal and verbal commitment are also likely contributors (Myers and Lamm, 1976 cited in Burnstein and Vinokur, 1977, p. 316). Burnstein and Vinokur argue that this is invalid because persuasive arguments involves a dynamic process whereabouts the persons brain acts like a central processing unit. Another criticism of the persuasive arguments theory is that their research generally involves the use of choice dilemma questionnaires introduced by Kogan and Wallach (1964); as these only measure shifts involving a risk-caution dimension they cant really be used to generalise to choice shifts in general. Many debates have taken place between exponents of the social comparison theory and the persuasive arguments theory ultimately leading to an inconclusive end. An alternative to Turners (1987) self categorisation theory, formulated by Wetherell (1987), proposes that for convergence to lead to polarization rather than just conformity; arguments have to be persuasive and extreme positions desirable only to the degree that they represent the norms of a group with which the person is psychologically identified. What group members converge upon is not the ingroup average, but the ingroup norm. This idea was tested on students by Mackie and Cooper (1984) who confirmed that participants attitudes were significantly more affected when they knew the arguments were coming from an ingroup rather than an outgroup. Sanders and Baron admit that there are probably several processes responsible for group induced choice shifts (Sanders Baron, 1977, p. 303). Burnstein and Vinokur still remain convinced that persuasive arguments can adequately explain group polarisation; but in conclusion (and as Lamm and Myers (1978) deduce) in a naturalistic setting there is no neat dichotomy. There is no clear cut separation between the two main theories, they operate unconsciously within each other and therefore both are necessary in daily life, probably along with several other factors, in order to produce the phenomenon known as group polarisation.